Venice, conscious that her staying power was greater than her rival’s, without a moment of panic set about equipping another fleet of a hundred galleys. Genoa, however, exhausted by her costly victory, was willing to treat, and in 1299 the Imperial Vicar of Milan effected a peace between the two Republics on honourable terms.

The Aristocracy Consolidates Power

During the Genoese war, the Venetian aristocracy had quietly matured plans to fence off their political preserves from any intrusion by the democratic element. Two abortive attempts were made in 1286 and 1296 to restrict membership of the Great Council exclusively to members of the aristocracy.

Gradenigo, a leader of iron will and indomitable purpose, succeeded in 1297 in achieving the constitutional revolution known as the Serrata del Gran Consiglio—the closing of the Great Council.

The Serrata del Gran Consiglio (1297)

The Quarantia were charged with the following measures:

1. All those who had sat in the Great Council during the previous four years were to be balloted individually. Those receiving not fewer than twelve votes would remain members until Michaelmas. After a new ballot, they could serve for a further year.
2. Three electors were appointed to submit additional names of non-members for election under the same ballot system.
3. These electors would sit until Michaelmas and then be replaced by three others, who would serve for one year.
4. The law could not be repealed except with the consent of five of the six privy councillors, twenty-five members of the Quarantia, and two-thirds of the Great Council.

These provisions transformed the Venetian aristocracy into a closed oligarchy and formally created the Maggior Consiglio.

A Narrow Path to Nobility

Although the second clause appeared to leave an avenue open for non-aristocrats, it was rendered ineffective by a guiding principle imposed by the electors: only those whose paternal ancestors had been members of the Great Council between 1172 and 1297 were eligible.

The immediate effect was an increase in the Council’s size:

• 1296: 210 members
• 1311: 1,017 members
• 1340: 1,212 members
• 1490: 1,570 members
• 1510: 1,671 members

The Golden Book and Electoral Reform

In 1315, it was enacted that a register be kept listing all persons over eighteen years of age entitled to enter the Council. So intense was the ambition for inscription that, in the following year, a fine of thirty lire was imposed on those whose names were unlawfully entered and not removed within a month.

In 1319, Avvogadori—heraldic and legal officers—were appointed to scrutinize applicants’ titles with the utmost severity. To prevent electoral manipulation, it was decreed that the number of ballots should equal the number of names inscribed, with a corresponding number of gold ballots equal to the number of seats available.

Names were read in order, and a boy drew a ballot for each candidate. Those receiving gold ballots were declared elected.

After two years, all qualified men aged twenty-five automatically became members of the Council ipso facto. This marked the definitive Serrata on November 25, 1319.

The Libro d’Oro and Noble Lineage

Every noble was required to register marriages and births with the Avvogaria. Stringent regulations ensured the purity of family records. Because of its association with gold ballots and political privilege, this register became known as the Libro d’Oro—the Golden Book.

The Structure of Venetian Government

The Great Council elected all state officials, imposed taxes, declared war and peace, and concluded alliances. As its size became unwieldy, many powers were delegated to other bodies.

The Senate

Established definitively in 1230, the Senate consisted of sixty members nominated by four electors from the Great Council. Later, sixty additional members—the Zonta—were added.

The Privy Council and the Signoria

The Consiglio Minore consisted of six members chosen from the city wards. Together with the Doge, they presided over the Senate. Joined by the three heads of the Quarantia, they formed the Serenissima Signoria.

They could act in the Doge’s absence, but the Doge could not act without them. Their duties included opening dispatches, receiving petitions, preparing legislative agendas, and annually reading the Coronation oath to the Doge.

Judicial and Administrative Bodies

The Quarantia functioned as the supreme judicial authority, supervised the Mint, heard appeals from subject cities, and received ambassadors. In the fifteenth century, its civil and criminal functions were separated into two distinct bodies.

In 1308, a small giunta of seven Savii was created to manage Ferrarese affairs. Its success led to permanent status and later expansion. In 1442, it was reorganized into three sections dealing with internal affairs, mainland territories, and the arsenal. Together, these formed the Collegio.

The Council of Ten and Constitutional Stability

The permanent establishment of the Council of Ten in 1335 completed the evolution of Venice’s political system. The resulting constitution, renowned for its stability and efficiency, became the admiration of European statesmen and the envy of Italy’s mainland powers.