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THE VARIETY OF EPISTEMOLOGY PARADIGMS

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Paradigm is defined as a fundamental view of the scientists about what is the subject matter that is always studied by one branch of science. Epistemology paradigm is a basic assumption and theoretical that is a common source of value so that the source of law, methods and application in science so it is very determine the nature, cirri and the character of science itself and specialized in their respective fields.

If we elaborate there are stages in the epistemological paradigm can be classified:

a. Paradigm here guides and directs scientific activity in normal science (normal science). Here the scientists have the opportunity to describe and develop the paradigm as a scientific model in the gelutinya in detail and depth. At this stage the scientists are not critical of the paradigm that guides its scientific activity during the activities of scientists to encounter various phenomena that can not be explained with the paradigm used as guidance or direction of activities / anomaly, Anomaly is a condition that shows the mismatch between reality and Paradigm in use.
b. The existence of the anomaly raises suspicion / suspicion so that it begins to be questioned and questioned about the paradigm.
c. Scientists can return to the same scientific path by expanding and developing a counter paradigm that is seen to solve problems and guide the next scientific activity. The process of changing or shifting the old paradigm to a new paradigm is called a scientific revolution.

1. Possitivism

Positivism was pioneered by a French philosopher named Auguste Comte in the 19th century. Although the real founder of this notion is Henry de Saint Simin (a utopian socialist figure) as his teacher and a friend of his discussion. Having abandoned his beloved wife, he raised the idea of ​​a universal humanism religion which he later called 'humanist religion', a religion whose teachings are based on positivism and humanitarian values. The very famous Comte motto is, "love is our principle; order our base; and progress our end. [1]

Comte's ideas played a great role in shaping the scientific world and the European community became the most advanced society in the world.
This flow is characterized by its highly positive assessment of science and the role of humanism values ​​in the development of desirable societies and cultures. Positivist facts are real facts or facts. The positive thing is something that everyone who wants to prove it can be justified. Comte is also called the father of sociology, because he founded sociology on the basis of empirical methods by modeling the methods of the natural sciences. It is hoped that the science of society should be able to predict its future. Concerning the teachings of Positivism among the basic tenets of positivism are the following:

1. In nature there are known laws
2. The cause of the objects in nature is unknown
3. Any statement that is principally non-factual can not be tangible and unreasonable
4. Only the relationship of facts can be known
5. Intellectual development is the main cause of social change.[2]

Of the five basic principles above can be understood that everything that can be seen by the human senses allows to be studied and studied into a science by using scientific methods agreed by scientists to produce laws that give benefit to human life. The flow of positivism has the view that sense and human reason are the same everywhere and its development is dominated by the same universal law (stages). As the originator Comte suggests there are three stages of development of individual thought, society or culture, namely:
First: the theological or fictive stage At this stage man looks for the first cause and the ultimate goal of all things. In all natural events it is believed that there is a supernatural power that regulates and causes all natural phenomena. All problems and answers to natural phenomena are returned to theological beliefs.
Second, the metaphysical (abstract) stage, At this stage man formulates the answer to natural phenomena by searching for the first and final causes. Rational explanation of abstraction is a reliable method for discovering the essence of all that metaphysical. This stage of human life has progressed compared to the previous stage.
Third, the positive phase; namely the real, factual and real thinking phases as the basis of knowledge. This stage according to Comte is the culmination of the development of human thought.[3]

From the above description it can be understood that human progress according to positivism is caused by the human belief in reason with the ability to think real and factual and leave the dogmas of religious theology that is abstract and even fictitious that the truth can not be tested by empirical evidence.
With the above understanding, people, especially intellectuals try to exploit nature as an object of research and assessment so that at some stage it can harm the human itself as a subject. In a sense on the one hand humans progress in the field of science and technology but on the other hand there is spiritual aridity of the mentality of human beings even dare to abandon the belief of God the creator, as if the human mind is what makes everything. Positivism is one of the philosophical schools of knowledge which sees that a statement of a scientist can be said as a science if it can be proven empirically. His most popular figure is Augus Comte (1798-1857).
In accordance with the above description can be concluded that the understanding of positivism include: first; in nature there are known laws, the second; .the cause of objects in nature is unknown, third; . Any statement that is principally non-returnable to fact has no real meaning and no sense, fourth; only the facts can be known, fifth; intellectual development is the main cause of social change.
In its development positivism undergoes a reshuffle on several sides, until the emergence of a school of thought called Logical Positivism. Other terms for Logical Positivism are logical empiricism, rational empiricism, and also neo-positivism. The paradigm of positivism influenced much of the world of science, which on the one hand understood the advancement of industry and technology, but on the other hand it had weaknesses and criticism from new philosophers and scientists in the 1960s such as Karl R. popper, and others.

2. Phenomenologism

Phenomenology emphasizes the need for philosophy to break away from any historical bond-whether it be a metaphysical, epistemological, or scientific tradition. The main program of phenomenology is to restore philosophy to the daily appreciation of the subject of knowledge. Return to the richness of human experience that is concrete, adherent, and full of appreciation. In addition, phenomenology also rejects the claims of modern epistemological representationism. Phenomenology that Husserl promoted as a science without presuppositions. This is contrary to the mode of philosophy since Hegel denied the possibility of science without presupposition. Presuppositions that haunt philosophy so far are naturalism and psychology. The influence of phenomenology is very broad. Almost all scientific disciplines get inspiration from phenomenology. Psychology, sociology, anthropology, until architecture all gain new breath with the emergence of phenomenology.

The generalization of the humanities sciences with the sciences gets stiff opposition from neo-Kantian philosophers who want a thorough, methodological, ontological, and epistymological sorting between the sciences of the humanities and the natural sciences. The Kantian feel that man is not solely determined by law or acting rationally rationale, but also possessing inner wealth (emotion, will, disposition) that can not be measured simply by natural science models.
One of the neo-Kantian of the Marburg Mahzab named Ernst Cassier reveals his concept of man as an animal symbolicum (his symbolic being) his concept is opposed to the concept of man that is determined by forces or external stimulants as well as physical objects. Cassier rejects the naturalist view held by the natural sciences (there is an external material reality that runs deterministically and independently from the subject).
The word phenomenology comes from the Greek word, Phenomenon, which is something that appears to be visible due to coverage, in the Indonesian language commonly used the term symptom. So phenomenology is a stream that speaks of a phenomenon or something that manifests itself.[4]

While the phenomenon in English which means the embodiment, symptoms, natural events in natural events. So phenomenology is a stream that speaks of phenomena or everything that manifests itself or it can also be said something that is a symptom.[5]

Furthermore Hasan Bakti Nasution explains the term phenomenology contains three interrelated sense that is immediately visible, something that appears but is still veiled, and the process of appearance. So phenomenology is a philosophy that states that truth is the result of human intuitive description of an object in accordance with the appearance of the object (phenomenon)[6] To facilitate this understanding, we take for example, Flu disease, among the symptoms are colds and coughs. Flu illness can not be said as flu disease if no symptoms, that is cold and cough. According to the adherents of phenomenology a phenomenon must only be observed with the senses, because phenomenon also can be seen / seen spiritually, without passing through the senses. Also phenomenon does not need an event, because a phenomenon is what manifests itself, what shows itself as it is, what is clear in front of us.[7] The flow of phenomenology seeks to achieve the real sense by breaking through all the phenomena that manifest itself toward the object. This effort combines the subject (human) and the object (observed) by means of intuitive observation.
Of the many theories of truth about knowledge, the theory of phenomenology includes being able to prove itself as one of the critical sources of thought. The thought of phenomenology was so influential in Europe and America The central figure of this phenomenological theory is Edmund Husserl and his followers Max Scheler, Husserl who was born in Prostejov, Czechoslovakia in 1859 and died in 1939 is the founder of phenomenology, his thoughts recorded in three important works, namely Logiche Untersuchungen (Investigations of logic) zu Eineer Reinen Phanomenologicalchen philosophie (Ideas for a pure phenomenology and phenomenological philosophy), and meditations cartesiennes. Among the important ideas are:

2.1. The theory of truth

As alluded to above, according to Husserl the truth must be merged between the subject and the object. The object is given the opportunity to introduce itself to the observing subject, according to the zu den schen selbs motto (back to the objects themselves). Returning to "things" is meant "objects" given the opportunity to speak about their nature. The statement of the nature of "things" no longer depends on the person making the statement but is determined by the things themselves.[8]

But "things" do not directly express their own nature. What we see in those things in ordinary thought, is not the essence. It is behind the visible. Because the first thought does not open the veil that covers the essence, it needs a second thought. The tool used to discover in this second thought, is intuition or wesenchau from the essence of symptoms.[9]
In an attempt to see the essence of intuition, Husserl introduces a reduction approach. What is meant by reduction is the delay of all existing knowledge about the object before intuition observation is done. Reduction can also be interpreted as filtering or downsizing. Another term Husserl uses is epoche, which means placing something between two brackets, meaning to forget the sense of the object for a while and try to see the object directly with intuition without the help of the preceding insights. This reduction is one of the underlying principles of phenomenological attitudes. To know something, a phenomenologist is neutral. Not using existing theories or understandings, in which case the object is given a chance to "talk about itself".

2.2. Types of reduction

      In order for intuition to capture the symptoms properly, man must break away from the experiences and previous images obtained in everyday life, by using three types of reduction:

A. Phenomenological reduction
The phenomenon of what is mentioned above is manifest itself. In the practice of everyday life, we do not pay attention to the apparition. What we see spontaneously is enough to convince us that the object we see is real or real.
We have believed it as a reality outside of us. But since the intended phenomenology is a reality in the sense that exists outside of itself and it can be achieved by experiencing intuitively, then what we perceive as reality in the ordinary view must temporarily be abandoned or made in brackets. All subjectivities are excluded, including in this case the theories, habits and views that shape our mind in looking at something (phenomenon), so that arises is the phenomenon itself.
B. Eiditis Reduction
Eiditis comes from the word eido, the essence.[10] Eiditis reduction is filtering or placement in brackets. Anything that is not eidos. The second result of this reduction is the realization of reality. By reducing the ease of all aspects, the phenomenon and phenomenon profile are only accidentally ruled out, since aspects and profiles never describe the object as a whole. Every object is complex, containing infinite aspects and profiles.
Reduction of eidity shows that in the phenomenology the coherence criterion applies. That is, the successive observations of the object must be unified in a consistent horizon, each observation giving hope to the actions that correspond to the first or the next.
Therefore in the reduction of eidity, what must be done is not to consider what is accidental or existential. The trick is through the reduction of eidity, ie delay in parentheses, the existential properties of the object, our attention is fully directed to its essence, its eidos or its essence[11].

C. Transedental Reduction

     In the nature of this reduction placed between the two brackets is the existence and everything that has no reciprocal relationship with pure consciousness, so that from the object finally the person comes to what is on the subject itself. This reduction by itself is no longer about the object. This reduction is the direction of the subject and experiences the things that manifest itself in consciousness, so the living is self-awareness, but not the empirical consciousness. The consciousness found is pure or transcendental consciousness.

All three of these reductions have a coherent relationship, starting from the first, then the second next third. A third reduction is not obtained without starting from the first reduction. Thus the reduction proceeds dynamically and linearly, so there is no stepping reduction.[12]

2.3. Intuitionism
This flow of intuition was born as a critical reaction to the flow of rationalism and empiricism, the character of this genre is Henri Bengson (1854-1941).
In scientific dictionary it is stated that intuitionism is an assumption that science can be achieved by direct understanding: the assumption that moral obligation can not be concluded by itself without the help of God. [13]Henri Bengson argues that not only are the senses limited, but even so, the objects we capture are always changing.[14]
From the above opinion can be understood that the senses and minds have limitations in understanding an object. The senses and the mind can understand an object if it concentrates itself on the object. By realizing the limitations of the senses and reason, Bengson developed a high-level capability that humans possess, intuition. Intuition is knowledge gained through a certain reasoning process. This is the result of the evolution of the highest understanding and intuition captures the object directly without thinking. For intuition, there is another form of experience (the inner experience) in addition to the experience lived through the senses. Tesa developed by this ideology has an incriminating side, such as the birth of intuitive knowledge that can only be communicated through translation into symbols, so that we will talk about subjective knowledge. Someone who is concentrating his thinking on a problem suddenly finds the answer to the error. Without going through the winding process of thinking, all of a sudden he has come to a conclusion.
The answer to the problem he thinks comes to his mind or intuition works in a state that is not fully conscious. A problem we are thinking about which we then postpone due to a dead end, suddenly appears in our mind complete with the answer. We feel confident that it is indeed the answer we are looking for but we can not explain how we got there. Here arises an anti-structuralist movement called structuralism and poststructuralist movements and some authors mention the super structuralist, This concept evolved as the movement wanted to take a serious critique of the modernist structuralist thinking that had paralyzed the creative human reason that lived in contemporary arenas. The flow of poststructuralism implies a philosophical movement that is a reaction to structuralism and dismantles every claim of paired opposition, tiered hierarchy, and the validity of universal truths and then proposes a new concept by upholding the free game of sign and the instability of meaning and intellectual categorization. To get a more complete picture read Karua Richhard Harland, Superstrukturalisme: Introduction comprehensively to semiotics, structuralism and poststrukuralisme, (Yogyarta: Jalansutra, 2006)[15]

3. Structuralism

Structuralism is a philosophical school that wants to understand the problems that arise in the history of philosophy. Here structural methodology is used to deal with humanity, history, culture and nature, by opening systematically the kinship structures and broader structures in literature and in the unconscious psychological patterns that drive human action. The characteristic of structuralism is the concentration on the description of the actual state of the object through investigation, the disclosure of its intrinsic nature which is not bound by time and the determination of the relationship between the facts or elements of the system through education.
According to Abrams (in Pradopo) that there are four approaches to literary works, namely (1) mimetic approaches that regard literature as an imitation of nature (life) (2) a pragmatic approach that considers the literary work as a means to a certain end, An expressive approach that considers literary works as the expression of the poet's feelings, thoughts, and experiences, (4) an objective approach that regards literature as autonomous, regardless of its natural surroundings, readers, and authors.[16]

As for the elements of structuralism there are three main types of literary works are; (a) in Prosa comprising themes, events / events, setting, characterization, plot, angle, and style. (b) In Poetry consists of themes, styles / styles, imagination / shadow, rime / rhythm, rhyme / dicajakan, diction / word selection, symbol, tone. (c) Whereas in Drama (drama text) consists; themes, dialogs, events / events, backgrounds / settings, characterizations / plots, plots and language styles.The objectives of this structuralime theory include; (a) as an intellectual activity, aimed at explaining textual exploitation; (b) as a scientific method, this theory has a technical way of working and a series of orderly steps to reach a valid conclusion; (c) as a knowledge, this theory can be studied and understood in general and broad and can be proved to be the truth of the way of work carefully.

4. Potsmodernism

In human history, we know three eras or epochs that have their own pre-modern, modern and postmodern characteristics. The modern age is characterized by the affirmation of the human self as the subject. Especially after the statement of Rene Descartes, "cogito ergo sum" which means 'I think then I exist'. Through that statement, man is guided by his ratio as a self-oriented subject so that the ratio or the reason of man becomes the controller of man especially his behavior.
At this time emerged various kinds of theories that apply until now. In the end is the era in which we are now the postmodern age. The thinking of this period calls itself postmodern, focusing on critical theory based on progress and emancipation. Progress and emancipation are two interrelated things, as Habermas stated that the existence of democracy is supported by science and technology.[17]

4.1. Understanding Postmodernnisme

The originator of postmodernism, first being Arnold Toynbee in 1939, while Charles Jencks, Each character mentions the model of their concept shift about the shift of thinking is very diverse. Although sometimes not sequentially chronologically it is here that makes a number of schools of thought in philosophy growing. The flow encompasses rationalism, empiricism, materiaslisme, posistivisme, idealism, pragmatism, existentialism, perenialisme and so forth. Each flow has a different style and character model of thought according to their individual inclinations. Each flow emerges as a reaction to another flow which assumes anomalies and crises that a new paradigm is needed in solving them. Deeper in relation to the paradigm shift of positiveism to postpositiveism read writing (Alex Rosenberg, Philosophy of Science;A Contemporary Introduction (New York:Routledge,2005) page 146-168, posmodernisme, Ziauddin Sardar, Thomas Kuhn dan Perang Ilmu, Translator: Sigit Djatmiko(Yogyakarta:Jendela, 2002) page. 13- 64).

confirmed also that the birth of the concept of postmodernism is from the writings of a Spanish Frederico de Onis. In his writings Antologia de la poesia espanola e hispanoamericana (1934), which introduced the term postmodernism to describe reactions within the sphere of modernism. Toynbee is regarded as the originator of the term as evidenced by his famous book The Study of History. In 1960, the term postmodernism penetrated the European continent so that many European thinkers became interested in the idea. Such as J. Francois Lyotard, is a personal example that has been captivated by the concept. He managed to work on his work entitled "The Post-Modern Condition" as a criticism of the work of "The Grand Narrative" which is considered a fictional tale of the work of Modernity. Based on this conceptualization - if agreed - then now (in 2016) "we" are in post-modern times. An age, in which premodern and modern as well as postmodern have been bypassed.
The post prefix on the term has many different meanings. Lyotard means post termination of the total thought relationship of all patterns of modernity.

David Griffin, defines it as merely a correction of certain aspects of neglect. [] While according to Tony Cliff, postmodernism means a theory that rejects the theory []. The suffix "isme" refers to a flow or system of thought that refers to philosophical criticisms of the world image, epistemology, and modern ideology. []. Postmodernism is a movement of ideas that replaces the ideas of the modern age. The modern age is characterized by the preference of ratio, objectivity, totality, structuralization / systematization. []. single universalization and saints progress. To facilitate the understanding of postmodernism, it is better to contrast this 'ism' with the opponents of history and the nuances of thought, namely modernism. Contrasting both 'isms' is deemed necessary because postmodernism, in many ways, can be said to be a reaction and a critique of modernism.

4.1.1 Modernism

Etymologically modern (adj.) Means, 'pertaining to recent or present time'. []. In a sub-chapter on postmodernism, Father Tom Jacob defines 'modern' as: (1) the latest, the latest; (2) attitude and way of thinking and acting in accordance with the demands of the times.
Meanwhile, according to Kant call it as, 'the achievement of transcendentalization away from human imanensi. So that man can reach the highest level. This ratio ability is the key to the truth of modern knowledge and culture. In addition to Kant, the history of modern cultural maturity is shown by Frederich Hegel. Through these two thinkers the values ​​of modernism are embedded in the course of world history. Kant with absolute ideas that have been given (category). Hegel with the philosophy of identity (absolute idealism) The reality of Hegel is the Spirit and the Universe in some ways is the product and the mind so that it can be understood by the mind. Thus, Hegel's philosophy is more precisely dictated by the nickname "Rationalist".
Hegel builds his philosophy from a fundamental keyity of unity (Unity). The Universe as a symbol of unity is a manifestation of "the Absolute" (The Absolute). The absolute is not a thing in itself, not a transcendent power nor a subjective ego, which is absolutely an active process of the world in itself (a prosecess world itself), and Hegel calls it an absolute idea. [18].

The construction of modern culture then stands up to the principles of reason, subject, identity, ego, totality, absolute ideas, linear progress, objectivity, autonomy, emancipation and binary opposition.
In the perspective of a postmodernist derived from the traadisi of philosophy, modernism can be referred to as' a spirit that is presupposed to exist in intellectual societies since renaissance (the 18th century) until the first half of the 20th century. The spirit in question is the passion for progress - progress - and for humanization '. This spirit is based on a very optimistic belief of the modernist grasp of human power.
In this era the ratio is seen as a power possessed by humans to understand reality, to build science and technology, morality, and aesthetics. In short, the ratio is seen as the single power that determines everything.
Recognition of the strength of the ratio in all human activities, means recognition of human dignity and prestige. Man with its ratio, - of course as subject; Giver of form and color to reality-- is the determinant of the direction of historical development. In fact, modernism is one form of humanism. The great narratives of modernism derived from capitalism, existentialism, liberalism, idealism, can not but prove it.
Modernism can also be interpreted as a passion for seeking and discovering fundamental truths, essential truths, and universality truths. The human ratio is capable of exploring factual reality to discover the essential or universal laws or foundations of reality.

4.1.2 Postmodernism

Etymologically Postmodernism is divided into two words, post and modern. The word post, in Webster's Dictionary Library is a prefix form, defined by 'later or after'. If we integrate it into a postmodern it will mean as a correction to the modern itself by trying to answer the question questions that can not be answered in modern times that arise because of the modernity itself.
Postmodernism is relative. Truth is relative, reality (reality) is relative, and both become constructs that are not continuous to one another. It obviously has implications in how we see ourselves and construct our identity. This is in line with the pioneering voices of Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche sche (1844-1900) against traditional rationality, morality, objectivity, and Christian thought. [19].

The Postmodern period sees knowledge as one of optimism and sees language as a guide not as an instrument for understanding the social context. Postmodernism is seen as a consciousness of modernity over its basic nature. Postmodern as a form of modernity that criticizes, defames, and overhauls knowledge and values ​​that already exist.
The principle of postmodernism is the melting of territorial boundaries and high cultural distinctions with low culture, between appearance and reality, between symbols and reality, between universal and peripheral and all other binary oppositions which have been upheld by conventional social and philosophical theories. [20].

The Postmodern period sees knowledge as one of optimism and sees language as a guide not as an instrument for understanding the social context. Postmodernism is seen as a consciousness of modernity over its basic nature. Postmodern as a form of modernity that criticizes, defames, and overhauls knowledge and values ​​that already exist. The principle of postmodernism is the melting of territorial boundaries and high cultural distinctions with low culture, between appearance and reality, between symbols and reality, between universal and peripheral and all other binary oppositions which have been upheld by conventional social and philosophical theories. [21].
So postmodern in general is the process of de-differentiation and the emergence of smelting in all fields. Postmodernism is a dynamic intensification (extension of the concept), which is an ongoing effort to search for novelty, experimentation and revolution of life, opposing and not believing in all forms of great narrative (meta narrative), and its rejection of metaphysical philosophy, historical philosophy, Form of thinking totality, and others. Postmodern in the field of philosophy is also defined all forms of critical reflection on the modern paradigm and on metaphysics in general and seek to find its contemporary form. [22].

4.2 The Difference of Modernism and Postmodernism

The evalengical thinker, Thomas Oden, says that the modern period begins with the collapse of the Bastille in 1789 (the French Revolution) and ends with the collapse of communism and the collapse of the berlin wall in 1989. Modernism is a period that affirms the authenticity and probability of knowing the truth by simply using human reason . Therefore, in the sense of symbolic reasoning replacing God's position, naturalism supersedes the supernatural position. Modernism as a substitute is expressed as a scientific discovery, human autonomy, linear progress, absolute truth (or the possibility of knowing), and the rational plan of social order Modernism begins with a high sense of optimism. This conceptualization is understandable enough that modernism means the ism of understanding about the realm of cognitive ideas. While Postmodernity, is a term usually used to describe the social reality of post-industrial society. While postmodernism is understood as a new discourse of thought that replaces modernism. Postmodernism destroys the concepts (ismsism) of modernism such as the existence of self-aware and autonomous subjects, the existence of special representations of the world, and the linear history. [23].
Postmodernism emerged, a style or movement in literature, painting, plastic art, and architecture. This movement takes into account the aesthetic aspects of reflection of modernity. Meanwhile postmodernity is seen as a new social order different from the institutions of modernity. Postmodernism is principally parallel to the term "radicalized modernity" to describe our world undergoing profound change and is speeding up beyond control. [24].A world of cone or runaway world. So what happens now is "self-conscious modernity." [25].
While postmodernism is a reaction against modernism that emerged since the late 19th century. In postmodernism, the mind is replaced by desire, reason is replaced by emotion, and morality is replaced by relativism. Reality is nothing more than a social construct; Truth is equated with power or power. Identity comes from the group. Postmodernism has fragmented character (fragmented into smaller), indeterminacy, and a distrust of all universal things (world views) and power structures.
In this case it can be mentioned the fundamental difference of modernism and postmodernism. The site mentions that modernism is another word for humanist illumination.

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REFFRENCE

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1. M.P.Cowen, R.W. Shenton, Doctrines Of Development, (first Published, London: 1996), page. 32

2. Akhyar Yusuf Lubis, Epistemologi Fundasional, (Akademika, Bogor, 2009), page.192-194

3. K.Bartends, Filsafat Barat Abad XX (Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta: 1981) page. 109

4. Jhon M.Echols dan Hasan Shadily, kamus bahasa inggris Indonesia(Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 1990) page.42

5. N.Drijakara S.J., percikan Filsafat (PT. Pembangunan, Jakarta:1989), Cet.V. page.117

6. Hasan Bakti Nasution, Filsafat Umum (Gaya Media Pratama, Jakarta: 2001) page.186-187, 188

7. Sudarsono, Ilmu Filsafat (: PT.Rineka Cipta, Jakarta 2001) page.340

8. Zainal Abidin, Filsafat Manusia, (PT Remaja Rosda Karya, Bandung: 2003) page.147

9. Pius A. Partianto dan M. Dahlan al Barry, kamus Ilmiah Populer (Arloka, Surabaya: t.th.) h.271

10. Ahmad Tafsir, Filsafat Umum, (PT Remaja Rosdakarya, Bandung: 1999), Cet.IX, page. 26

11. Jujun S.Sumantri, Filsafat Ilmu Sebuah Pengantar Populer (PT Gelora Aksara Pratama, Jakarta: 1990), Cet.VI, page. 53

12. Karua Richhard Harland,Superstrukturalisme; Pengantar komprehensip kepada semiotika, strukturalisme dan poststrukuralisme, (Yogyarta:Jalasutra, 2006)

13. Pradopo, Rachmat Djoko. Beberapa Teori Sastra, Metode Kritik, dan Penerapannya. (Gadjah Mada University Press Yogyakarta : 1993), page. 140-141

14. Alex Rosenberg, Philosophy of Science;A Contemporary Introduction (New York:Routledge,2005) page 146-168

15. posmodernisme , Ziauddin Sardar, Thomas Kuhn dan Perang Ilmu, translator Sigit Djatmiko(Yogyakarta:Jendela, 2002) page. 13- 64

16. Charles Jencks, tersimpul dalam karyanya The Language of Post-Modern Architecture, 4th ed. (London: Academy Editions, 1984)

17. Joko Siswanto, Sistem- system Metafisika Barat,(Yogyakarta:Pustaka Pelajar, 1998), page. 159

18. Seyla Benhabib, Epistemologies of Postmodernism:A Rejoinder to Jean - Francois Lyotard (Autum:Telos press, JSTOR,1984), page.111

19. Ali Maksum, The Postmodern Condition: A Report on Knowledge (1984). and Ali Maksum, The Re-enchanment of Science: Postmodern Proposal (Albany: State University of New York, 1988).

20. Ali Maksum, Pengantar Filsafat: Dari Masa Klasik hingga Postmodernisme (Yogyakarta: Ar-Ruzz Media, 2011), page.306

21. Louis Leahy, Manusia Sebuah Misteri;sintesa filosofis makhluk paradoks (Jakarta: Gramedia, 1985) page 271

22. Decio Tores Cruz, Postmodern Metanarratives: Blade Runner and Literature in the Age of Image ,(Palgrave Macmilan, United Kingdom: 2014), page. 9

23. Zubaedi, Filsafat Barat. (Ar-Ruzz Media. Yogyakarta:2010), page. 87

24. Bambang Sugiharto,. Postmodernisme Tantangan Bagi Filsafat.(Yogyakarta: Kanisius. 2000), page. 7

25. Scoot Lash, Sosiologi Postmodernisme( Jakarta:Kanisius,2004), page. 21 and
    “http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernism”.

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